The English name Ukraine derives from the Ukrainian name Україна (Ukrayina). The historical meaning and etymology of the name have been the subject of linguistic and historical discussion.

The term appeared in medieval East Slavic sources and was used in different contexts over the centuries. In modern Ukrainian historical and political usage, Ukraine denotes the Ukrainian homeland and the modern Ukrainian state.

The adjective and demonym are Ukrainian.

Location

Ukraine lies approximately between 44° and 53° north latitude and 22° and 41° east longitude. Its geographical position places it at an important crossroads between Europe and Eurasia.

The country has a total area of approximately 603,500 square kilometres within its internationally recognized borders, making it one of Europe’s largest states.

Ukraine’s geographical neighbours are:

• Belarus to the north
• Russia to the east and northeast
• Poland to the west
• Slovakia to the west
• Hungary to the west
• Romania to the southwest
• Moldova to the southwest

The Black Sea forms much of Ukraine’s southern maritime boundary, while the Sea of Azov lies to the southeast.

Landscape

Much of Ukraine consists of broad plains and fertile agricultural land. The East European Plain dominates the country’s geography, although several important mountain and upland regions exist.

The principal mountainous areas are:

• the Carpathian Mountains in western Ukraine
• the Crimean Mountains in the Crimean Peninsula

The highest mountain in Ukraine is Hoverla, in the Carpathians, with an elevation of approximately 2,061 metres.

Ukraine’s landscape includes forests, forest-steppe, steppe, river valleys, wetlands and coastal environments.

Rivers

Ukraine possesses an extensive river system.

The most important river is the Dnieper (Dnipro), which flows through central Ukraine and ultimately reaches the Black Sea. Other major rivers include:

• Dniester
• Southern Bug
• Desna
• Siverskyi Donets
• Tisza
• Prut

The Dnieper has historically been important for transportation, agriculture, hydroelectric power and settlement.

Climate

Ukraine generally has a temperate continental climate, although conditions vary considerably by region.

Winters are generally cold, particularly in northern and eastern areas, while summers range from warm to hot. Western regions tend to receive more precipitation than southeastern regions.

The southern coastal areas have comparatively milder conditions.

Prehistory and antiquity

The territory of present-day Ukraine has been inhabited for thousands of years.

Important prehistoric cultures associated with the region include the Trypillia culture, which flourished during the Neolithic and Copper Age periods.

The Pontic-Caspian steppe north of the Black Sea subsequently became home to and a migration corridor for numerous nomadic peoples, including the Scythians and Sarmatians.

Greek colonies were established along the Black Sea coast during antiquity. Later, the region came under the influence of the Roman Empire, Gothic peoples, Huns, Avars, Khazars, and other groups.

One of the most important periods in Ukrainian history was the development of Kyivan Rus’, a medieval East Slavic polity centred on Kyiv.

The state emerged in the late ninth century and became one of the major political and cultural powers of medieval Eastern Europe.

Kyiv developed into an important centre of trade, politics, Christianity and culture.

The reign of Vladimir the Great was particularly significant. In 988, Vladimir adopted Christianity from the Byzantine tradition and initiated the Christianization of Kyivan Rus’.

His successor Yaroslav the Wise presided over a period of political and cultural development. Kyiv became an important intellectual and religious centre, and dynastic marriages connected the ruling family with European monarchies.

Kyivan Rus’ subsequently fragmented into numerous principalities. In the thirteenth century, much of the region was devastated by the Mongol invasion, including the sack of Kyiv in 1240.

The historical legacy of Kyivan Rus’ is important to the national histories of modern Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, although the interpretation of this legacy is politically and historically contested.

Following the decline of Mongol power, much of present-day Ukrainian territory became incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

After the Union of Lublin in 1569, significant Ukrainian lands became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

During this period, social, religious and political tensions developed among different population groups. The expansion of the Polish nobility and Catholic institutions, combined with the distinctive identity of Orthodox East Slavic communities, contributed to the development of Ukrainian political and cultural movements.

The Cossacks became a major political and military force in Ukrainian history from the sixteenth century onward.

The Zaporozhian Cossacks established a semi-autonomous military society centred around the lower Dnieper.

In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a major uprising against Polish rule. The uprising resulted in the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate, a political entity that controlled substantial portions of central and eastern Ukraine.

In 1654, Khmelnytsky entered into an agreement with the Tsardom of Russia, traditionally associated with the Treaty of Pereiaslav. The precise political and legal interpretation of this relationship has been debated extensively by historians.

Over subsequent decades, Russian influence over the Hetmanate increased. By the eighteenth century, the Russian Empire progressively abolished Cossack autonomy.

By the late eighteenth century, most Ukrainian territories were divided between the Russian Empire and the Habsburg monarchy.

The Russian-controlled territories experienced extensive imperial integration and, at various times, restrictions on Ukrainian-language publishing and cultural activity.

Western Ukrainian territories under Habsburg rule developed somewhat differently. Cities such as Lviv became important centres of Ukrainian cultural and political activity.

During the nineteenth century, Ukrainian intellectuals developed a modern Ukrainian national movement centred on language, literature, history and national identity.

The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries witnessed the emergence of modern Ukrainian nationalism.

Writers such as Taras Shevchenko played a major role in the development of modern Ukrainian literature and national consciousness.

The collapse of the Russian Empire during the Russian Revolution of 1917 created an opportunity for Ukrainian statehood.

The Ukrainian People’s Republic was proclaimed in 1917.

A series of governments and competing political forces emerged during the Ukrainian War of Independence. Ukraine became a battlefield involving Ukrainian nationalists, Bolsheviks, White Russian forces, Polish forces and other military formations.

By the early 1920s, Bolshevik forces had consolidated control over most of Ukrainian territory.

In 1922, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Ukrainian SSR) became one of the constituent republics of the newly created Soviet Union.

The Soviet period had an enormous impact on Ukrainian society.

During the 1920s, a policy of Ukrainianization encouraged Ukrainian cultural and linguistic development. This was followed by increasing political repression and Russification under Joseph Stalin.

Holodomor

The Holodomor refers to the catastrophic famine of 1932–1933 in Soviet Ukraine.

Millions of people died as a result of a combination of forced collectivization, grain requisition policies, disruption of agriculture, political repression and other factors.

The historical interpretation and legal classification of the Holodomor have been subjects of international debate. Ukraine officially recognizes it as genocide, as do a number of other countries.

The famine remains one of the central tragedies in modern Ukrainian historical memory.

Ukraine was one of the principal theatres of the Second World War.

Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, and much of Ukraine was occupied by German forces.

The occupation was extraordinarily destructive. Millions of Ukrainian civilians and soldiers died, including a large Jewish population murdered during the Holocaust.

One of the best-known sites of mass killing was Babyn Yar near Kyiv.

Ukrainian territory witnessed major battles, partisan warfare, occupation, collaboration, resistance and mass atrocities.

The Soviet Army reconquered Ukraine during 1943–1944. By the end of the war, the Ukrainian SSR had suffered enormous demographic, economic and infrastructural losses.

After World War II, Ukraine underwent extensive reconstruction and industrialization.

Heavy industry expanded particularly in the eastern and southern regions. Large cities including Kyiv, Kharkiv, Dnipro, Donetsk and Odesa became important industrial and administrative centres.

In 1954, the Soviet leadership transferred administration of the Crimean Oblast from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.

During the later Soviet period, Ukrainian political and cultural dissidents challenged Soviet censorship and repression.

On 26 April 1986, Reactor No. 4 of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded during a safety test.

The accident released large quantities of radioactive material and became the world’s most severe nuclear power accident in terms of its long-term environmental and social consequences.

The disaster exposed weaknesses in the Soviet political system, particularly regarding transparency and the communication of information.

Chernobyl remains a major part of Ukraine’s modern historical memory and international environmental history.

Ukraine declared independence on 24 August 1991, following the failed coup attempt in Moscow and the rapid disintegration of the Soviet Union.

The decision was confirmed by a national referendum on 1 December 1991, in which Ukrainian voters overwhelmingly supported independence.

Ukraine subsequently became a sovereign state and joined the international community as an independent country. The United Nations records Ukraine as a member state and notes the change of name from the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic to Ukraine in August 1991.

1990s

The first decade of independence was characterized by political instability, economic transformation and the difficult transition from a centrally planned Soviet economy to a market-oriented system.

Ukraine inherited a large industrial base, substantial agricultural resources and a significant portion of the Soviet military-industrial complex.

Economic contraction during the 1990s was severe. Inflation, privatization and the emergence of powerful business groups transformed the country’s economic and political landscape.

In 1996, Ukraine adopted its modern Constitution, establishing the fundamental framework of the Ukrainian state.

The Orange Revolution of 2004–2005 was a major political movement triggered by allegations of electoral fraud during the presidential election.

Large demonstrations took place in Kyiv and other cities.

The political crisis eventually resulted in a rerun of the presidential election, which was won by Viktor Yushchenko.

The Orange Revolution became an important milestone in Ukraine’s post-Soviet democratic development.

In late 2013, President Viktor Yanukovych suspended preparations for an association agreement with the European Union.

Large demonstrations began in Kyiv’s Maidan Nezalezhnosti, or Independence Square.

The protests expanded after security forces attempted to suppress demonstrators.

The movement became known as Euromaidan and ultimately developed into the Revolution of Dignity.

Yanukovych left Ukraine in February 2014, and the Ukrainian parliament established a new political leadership.

In February–March 2014, Russian forces took control of key installations in Crimea.

A referendum organized under Russian military control was followed by Russia’s annexation of Crimea. Ukraine and most of the international community do not recognize the annexation and regard Crimea as Ukrainian territory under Russian occupation.

Armed conflict also erupted in the Donetsk and Luhansk regions of eastern Ukraine.

Russia supported separatist forces in the Donbas, while Ukraine launched military operations to restore government control.

The conflict continued for years despite the Minsk agreements of 2014 and 2015.

On 24 February 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine.

Russian forces attacked from several directions, including from Russia, Belarus and occupied Crimea.

Major battles occurred around:

• Kyiv
• Kharkiv
• Chernihiv
• Sumy
• Mariupol
• Kherson
• Mykolaiv
• Sievierodonetsk
• Lysychansk
• Bakhmut
• Avdiivka

Ukraine successfully prevented the capture of Kyiv and subsequently retook significant areas in northern Ukraine.

In September 2022, Ukrainian forces conducted major counteroffensives in the Kharkiv region and in southern Ukraine.

Kherson city was liberated in November 2022.

The war subsequently developed into a prolonged conflict involving artillery, missiles, drones, trenches, electronic warfare, air defence and long-range strikes.

The Russian invasion produced one of the largest displacement crises in Europe since the Second World War.

Millions of Ukrainians have fled the country, while millions more have been displaced internally.

The conflict has caused extensive destruction of housing, schools, hospitals, energy infrastructure, transportation networks and industrial facilities.

According to the World Bank, approximately 5.9 million Ukrainian refugees were registered worldwide by January 2026, while approximately 3.3 million people remained internally displaced within Ukraine.

The war has also created major challenges involving land mines, unexploded ordnance, damaged infrastructure and disrupted public services.

Ukraine is a unitary republic with a constitutional system combining presidential and parliamentary institutions.

The country’s political structure includes:

• the President
• the Verkhovna Rada, Ukraine’s parliament
• the Cabinet of Ministers
• the judiciary
• regional and local governments

The Verkhovna Rada is the unicameral national legislature.

The Constitution establishes Ukraine as a sovereign, independent, democratic and social state governed by the rule of law.

President

The President is the head of state and is elected by popular vote.

Volodymyr Zelenskyy has served as President since 2019. He was elected on 21 April 2019 and inaugurated on 20 May 2019.

As of September 2026, Zelenskyy remains President of Ukraine.

Prime Minister

The Prime Minister heads the Cabinet of Ministers and leads the government’s executive administration.

In July 2026, the Verkhovna Rada appointed Sergii Koretskyi as Prime Minister of Ukraine, following the resignation of the government headed by Yulia Svyrydenko.

Ukraine is divided into oblasts, cities with special status, and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea under Ukraine’s constitutional framework.

Major administrative and urban centres include:

• Kyiv
• Kharkiv
• Odesa
• Dnipro
• Lviv
• Zaporizhzhia
• Vinnytsia
• Poltava
• Chernihiv
• Mykolaiv
• Kryvyi Rih

Because of the ongoing war and Russian occupation, the practical administration of some Ukrainian territories differs from their internationally recognized constitutional status.

Ukraine regards Crimea and territories occupied by Russia as parts of Ukraine.

Ukraine has a diversified economy based on agriculture, manufacturing, energy, mining, information technology, services and trade.

Before the full-scale invasion, Ukraine was particularly important internationally for:

• grain production
• sunflower oil
• metallurgy
• machinery
• aerospace engineering
• chemicals
• information technology
• energy
• agricultural exports

The World Bank’s World Development Indicators put Ukraine’s nominal GDP at approximately US$214.2 billion in 2025.

The war has profoundly altered the economy.

Agriculture

Ukraine possesses some of the world’s most fertile soils, particularly its extensive chernozem, or black-earth soils.

Major agricultural products include:

• wheat
• maize
• barley
• sunflower
• sunflower oil
• rapeseed
• sugar beet
• vegetables
• livestock products

Ukraine has historically been one of the world’s major agricultural exporters.

The disruption of Black Sea shipping after the 2022 invasion created significant international concerns regarding global food supplies.

Ukraine inherited a substantial industrial base from the Soviet Union.

Important industrial sectors include:

• steel
• metallurgy
• mining
• machinery
• chemicals
• aerospace
• defence manufacturing
• energy equipment
• rail transportation equipment

The Donbas and Dnieper industrial regions historically contained major mining and metallurgical centres.

The war has severely damaged or disrupted many industrial facilities.

Ukraine has developed a significant technology and software sector.

Ukrainian programmers, engineers, cybersecurity specialists and technology companies have participated in international software development, fintech, gaming, artificial intelligence and defence technology.

The war has accelerated interest in:

• drones
• autonomous systems
• artificial intelligence
• electronic warfare
• cybersecurity
• battlefield communications
• defence software

Ukraine has increasingly become an important testing ground for modern military technologies.

Ukraine has historically depended on a combination of nuclear power, coal, natural gas, hydroelectricity and renewable energy.

Nuclear power is particularly important.

The country operates several nuclear power plants, including:

• Zaporizhzhia
• Rivne
• South Ukraine
• Khmelnytskyi

The Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, Europe’s largest nuclear power plant by installed capacity, has been under Russian control since 2022. Its status has been a major international nuclear-safety concern.

Repeated attacks on Ukraine’s electricity infrastructure have also made energy resilience a central national-security issue.

The war has created enormous reconstruction requirements.

The joint World Bank, European Commission, United Nations and Ukrainian government assessment released in February 2026 estimated that Ukraine’s reconstruction and recovery needs had reached approximately US$588 billion over ten years as of the end of 2025.

Major reconstruction priorities include:

• housing
• energy systems
• transport
• schools
• hospitals
• water infrastructure
• municipal services
• industrial facilities
• agricultural land
• mine clearance
• digital infrastructure

Reconstruction is increasingly linked to Ukraine’s broader economic modernization and European integration.

European integration has become one of the central strategic objectives of Ukraine.

Ukraine signed an Association Agreement with the European Union, establishing a framework for closer economic and political relations.

Following the 2022 invasion, Ukraine formally applied for EU membership.

The European Union subsequently granted Ukraine candidate status and began accession negotiations.

In June 2026, negotiations on Cluster 1: Fundamentals were formally opened. This cluster includes areas such as rule of law, judicial independence, anti-corruption, public administration, financial control, public procurement and statistics.

EU membership remains a long-term strategic objective, but accession requires Ukraine to meet extensive political, legal and economic conditions.

Ukraine maintains diplomatic relations with countries throughout the world.

Its most important strategic relationships include those with:

• the European Union
• the United States
• the United Kingdom
• Poland
• Germany
• France
• Canada
• the Baltic states
• other NATO member states

Ukraine is not a member of NATO, but it has developed extensive cooperation with the alliance and its member states.

Since 2022, Ukraine has received substantial military, economic and humanitarian assistance from European countries, the United States and other international partners.

Ukraine’s population has declined substantially since the late Soviet period.

The decline reflects several factors, including:

• low birth rates
• ageing
• emigration
• economic difficulties
• war-related displacement
• mortality
• territorial occupation

Population estimates are particularly difficult because the war has caused millions of people to leave their homes and because territories under Russian occupation are outside the effective control of the Ukrainian government.

The majority of the population identifies as Ukrainian.

Historically, Ukraine has also been home to significant communities of:

• Russians
• Crimean Tatars
• Belarusians
• Moldovans
• Bulgarians
• Hungarians
• Romanians
• Poles
• Jews
• Armenians
• Greeks
• Roma
• other ethnic groups

The Crimean Tatars are an Indigenous people of Crimea with a distinctive language, culture and historical identity.

Ukrainian is the official state language.

Ukrainian is an East Slavic language closely related to Belarusian and Russian.

Russian has historically been widely spoken, particularly in eastern and southern Ukraine and in major cities.

Other minority languages are also spoken, including Romanian, Hungarian, Bulgarian, Crimean Tatar and Polish.

Language has been an important element of Ukrainian national identity and has become particularly politically significant since 2014 and especially since the full-scale Russian invasion.

Ukraine has a diverse religious landscape.

The largest religious traditions include Eastern Christianity, particularly:

• Eastern Orthodoxy
• Ukrainian Greek Catholicism

There are also communities of:

• Roman Catholics
• Protestants
• Jews
• Muslims
• other religious groups

The Crimean Tatars are predominantly Muslim, mainly Sunni Muslims.

Kyiv has historically been an important centre of Eastern Christianity.

Ukrainian culture has developed from a combination of East Slavic, European, steppe, Cossack and regional traditions.

Important elements include:

• literature
• folk music
• dance
• embroidery
• painting
• architecture
• religious art
• theatre
• cinema
• cuisine

Literature

Prominent Ukrainian writers include:

• Taras Shevchenko
• Ivan Franko
• Lesya Ukrainka
• Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky
• Mykola Khvylovy
• Lina Kostenko

Taras Shevchenko is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in Ukrainian literature and national culture.

Ukrainian musical traditions include folk songs, choral music, religious music and modern popular music.

The bandura, a Ukrainian plucked string instrument, is strongly associated with Ukrainian cultural traditions.

Ukraine has also become increasingly visible in international popular culture.

The country has participated successfully in the Eurovision Song Contest, winning multiple times.

Ukrainian visual culture includes traditional folk art, iconography, decorative arts and modern painting.

The Petrykivka painting tradition is particularly famous for its elaborate floral designs.

Ukrainian artists have contributed to modern European art, including the avant-garde movements of the early twentieth century.

Ukraine contains architectural traditions dating from medieval times to the modern period.

Important architectural landmarks include:

• Saint Sophia’s Cathedral in Kyiv
• Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra
• Golden Gate of Kyiv
• historic Lviv
• Kamianets-Podilskyi Castle
• Odesa’s historic centre
• numerous wooden churches in western Ukraine

The Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra is one of the most important religious and historical complexes in Ukraine.

Ukrainian cuisine is characterized by grains, vegetables, meat, dairy products and preserved foods.

Well-known dishes include:

• borscht
• varenyky
• holubtsi
• deruny
• pampushky
• salo
• banosh
• kutia

Borscht, traditionally associated with Ukrainian cuisine, became an internationally recognized cultural symbol. UNESCO added the culture of Ukrainian borscht cooking to its list of intangible cultural heritage in need of urgent safeguarding in 2022.

Ukraine has a large network of schools, vocational institutions and universities.

Important universities include:

• Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
• National Technical University of Ukraine “Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute”
• Ivan Franko National University of Lviv
• Kharkiv National University

The Ukrainian education system has faced major challenges because of the war, including damaged schools, displacement of students and teachers, interruptions to classroom education and psychological stress.

The government has expanded efforts to provide safer educational infrastructure, including underground and protected schools.

Ukraine has a long scientific tradition inherited partly from Soviet-era research institutions.

Areas of strength have included:

• aerospace engineering
• mathematics
• physics
• computer science
• nuclear science
• materials science
• medicine
• agricultural science

Ukraine’s aerospace heritage includes major contributions to rocket and aircraft engineering.

The Antonov aircraft design bureau and associated industrial facilities became internationally known for large transport aircraft.

Ukraine possesses a wide range of natural and cultural attractions.

Major tourism destinations historically included:

• Kyiv
• Lviv
• Odesa
• the Carpathian Mountains
• Crimea
• Kamianets-Podilskyi
• Chernivtsi
• the Dnieper region

However, the Russian invasion has severely restricted tourism in many parts of the country.

Lviv and parts of western Ukraine have continued to receive visitors, although the security situation remains subject to change.

Ukraine contains diverse ecosystems, including forests, wetlands, grasslands and marine environments.

The Carpathian region contains important forests and mountain ecosystems.

Ukraine’s steppe ecosystems are particularly significant because much of Europe’s original steppe has been transformed by agriculture.

The war has created serious environmental risks, including:

• forest fires
• destruction of agricultural land
• chemical pollution
• damage to industrial facilities
• destruction of ecosystems
• mine contamination
• water pollution
• damage to protected areas

The destruction of infrastructure and industrial facilities can produce environmental consequences extending far beyond the immediate battlefield.

The Armed Forces of Ukraine are the country’s principal military institution.

They include:

• Ground Forces
• Air Force
• Navy
• Air Assault Forces
• Special Operations Forces
• Territorial Defence Forces
• Unmanned Systems Forces

Ukraine’s military underwent extensive modernization following the Russian annexation of Crimea and the Donbas war.

The full-scale invasion dramatically expanded Ukraine’s military mobilization and defence-industrial requirements.

Ukraine has also become a major centre for military drone development and battlefield innovation.

Flag

The national flag consists of two horizontal bands:

• blue on the upper half
• yellow on the lower half

The colours are commonly associated with the Ukrainian sky and wheat fields, although their historical symbolism has multiple interpretations.

Coat of arms

Ukraine’s principal national emblem is the Tryzub, or trident.

The symbol is associated with the medieval ruling dynasty of Kyivan Rus’ and was adopted as the state emblem of modern Ukraine after independence.

National anthem

The national anthem is “Shche ne vmerla Ukraina”, meaning approximately “Ukraine Has Not Yet Perished.”

Ukraine is a member or participant in numerous international organizations and institutions, including:

• United Nations
• Council of Europe
• Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
• World Trade Organization
• International Monetary Fund
• World Bank
• European Bank for Reconstruction and Development

Ukraine also cooperates extensively with NATO and the European Union.

Ukraine has been a member of the United Nations since the organization’s establishment era, initially as the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and subsequently as independent Ukraine.

Ukraine’s geographical position gives it considerable geopolitical importance.

Its location connects:

• Eastern and Central Europe
• the Black Sea region
• the European Union
• Russia
• the Caucasus and wider Eurasian region

Ukraine’s agricultural exports have implications for global food markets, while its energy infrastructure and Black Sea ports have broader European and international significance.

The Russian invasion has also had consequences far beyond Ukraine, affecting:

• European security
• NATO strategy
• global energy markets
• food security
• international sanctions policy
• defence spending
• refugee policy
• international law
• relations between Russia and Western countries

Ukraine’s modern history has been characterized by the interaction of three major forces:

1. Nation-building and democratic development
2. European integration
3. Conflict over sovereignty and territorial control

The country has sought to strengthen its democratic institutions and establish closer political and economic ties with Europe, while facing persistent security challenges from Russia.

The 2022 full-scale invasion transformed Ukraine’s domestic politics, economy, demographics, military structure and international position.

At the same time, Ukraine’s resistance has strengthened its national identity and accelerated its integration with European institutions.

As of September 2026, Ukraine remains affected by the ongoing Russian–Ukrainian war.

President Volodymyr Zelenskyy remains head of state.

Sergii Koretskyi serves as Prime Minister following his appointment by the Verkhovna Rada in July 2026.

The government continues to focus on national defence, energy security, economic resilience, reconstruction, social protection and European integration.

Ukraine and its international partners are also engaged in diplomatic efforts concerning the future of the war and the conditions for a possible peace settlement.

The country’s future is therefore closely connected to several unresolved questions: the outcome of the war, the status of occupied territories, security guarantees, reconstruction, demographic recovery, economic modernization and Ukraine’s eventual relationship with the European Union and NATO.

Ukraine is a large Eastern European country with a history extending from prehistoric civilizations and medieval Kyivan Rus’ to the Cossack era, imperial rule, the Soviet period and modern independence.

It became an independent state in 1991 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Since then, Ukraine has experienced major political transformations, including the Orange Revolution and Revolution of Dignity, while progressively strengthening its European orientation.

The Russian annexation of Crimea and the war in Donbas beginning in 2014, followed by the full-scale Russian invasion in 2022, fundamentally reshaped the country.

Ukraine today is simultaneously a sovereign European state, a major agricultural and technological country, a significant geopolitical actor and the site of the largest interstate war in Europe in decades.

Its contemporary history is therefore important not only for Ukrainians and Europeans but for the wider international community, particularly in relation to sovereignty, international law, democratic governance, European security, food security, energy security and the future political order of Europe.

History of UkraineKyivan Rus’Ukrainian People’s RepublicUkrainian Soviet Socialist RepublicHolodomorChernobyl disasterOrange RevolutionRevolution of DignityRusso-Ukrainian WarRussian invasion of UkraineCrimeaDonbasUkrainian languageUkrainian cultureUkrainian literatureUkrainian cuisineEconomy of UkrainePolitics of UkraineForeign relations of UkraineEuropean Union–Ukraine relationsUkraine–NATO relations